Energy conversion systems utilizing parallel array of automatic switches and generators

ABSTRACT

Nanoelectromechanical systems utilizing nanometer-scale assemblies are provided that convert thermal energy into another form of energy that can be used to perform useful work at macroscopic level. Nanometer-scale beams are provided that reduce the velocity of working substance molecules that collide with this nanometer-scale beam by converting some of the kinetic energy of a colliding molecule into kinetic energy of the nanometer-scale beam. In embodiments that operate without a working substance, the thermal vibrations of the beam itself create the necessary beam motion. Automatic switches may be added to realize a regulator such that the nanometer-scale beams only deliver voltages that exceed a particular amount. The output energy of millions of these devices may be efficiently summed together.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/453,373, filed on Jun. 2, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,148,579 which ishereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to nanometer scale electromechanical systems. Inparticular, the present invention relates to nanometer scaleelectromechanical systems that may be used in various applications, suchas heat engines, heat pumps, or propulsion systems.

Electromechanical systems that rely on molecular motion are known. Forexample, U.S. Pat. No. 4,152,537 (the “'537 patent”), describes anelectricity generator that produces electrical energy from the randommovement of molecules in a gas, and the uneven distribution of thermalenergy in different molecules of the gas, which is at an overall uniformtemperature.

Other such systems are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos.3,365,653; 3,495,101, 2,979,551; 3,609,593; 3,252,013 and 3,508,089.These systems produce electricity or devices driven by electricity, suchas an oscillator, based on molecular motion and thermal energy.

One problem common to all of these systems is the low level of outputpower when compared to the amount of power required to operate thesystems. For example, such systems often require a certain amount ofenergy to maintain the systems at a constant overall temperature. Whilethe '537 patent attempted to address some of the known deficiencies insuch systems, the electricity generator described therein also suffersfrom similar deficiencies. For example, the '537 patent attempts to heatthe thermocouple junction between two dissimilar materials by simplybeing in contact with a gas-molecule having an above-average speed. Inaddition, the '537 patent utilizes an array of electrical rectifiers(see, e.g., rectifier bridge 40 in FIGS. 2 and 4) that may havedifficulty in operating properly due to the infinitesimally smallvoltages produced at the molecular scale.

Moreover, as the use of electronic devices continues to flourish, thereis an ever increasing need to provide more efficient and/or quieter waysto cool the components that are typically the heart of such devices. Forexample, most personal computers include one or more fans that arerequired to maintain the temperature of the microprocessor within acertain operational range. These fans are often noisy, and often resultin large quantities of dirty air being pulled through the computer fromthe air intakes.

Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to providenanometer scale electromechanical systems that efficiently convertmolecular-level energy into another form that can be used at amacroscopic scale.

Another object of the present invention is to provide nanometer scaleelectromechanical systems that efficiently convert molecular-level heatenergy into useful mechanical and/or electrical energy.

A still further object of the present invention is to provide nanometerscale electromechanical systems that utilize molecular-level energy tocreate a pressure differential on a surface of an object to propel theobject in a controllable direction.

An even further object of the present invention is to provide nanometerscale electromechanical systems that utilize molecular-level energy toheat or cool an external substance.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This application improves upon U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/885,367, filed Jun. 20, 2001, which is herein incorporated byreference in its entirety.

The nanometer scale electromechanical systems of the present inventionefficiently convert molecular-level energy from one form into anotherform by reducing the velocity of the molecules within the workingsubstance. These systems may include, for example, a heat engine thatconverts molecular-level heat energy into useful mechanical orelectrical energy. Such systems may also include a heat pump thatutilizes molecular-level energy to either heat or cool a substance. Forexample, a system of the present invention may be mounted to amicroprocessor as the primary cooling device, so that little or no fanswould be necessary. In addition, these systems may also includepropulsion systems in which molecular-level energy is utilized to createa pressure differential on the surface of an object, thereby providingthe ability to propel that object in a controllable direction.

Nanometer scale electromechanical systems constructed in accordance withthe present invention may include a large number of nanometer-sizedobjects, such as paddles, impact masses, and/or tubes, that are placedin a liquid or gas. These objects may be sized on the order of severalnanometers per side, and may have a thickness on the order of about oneor two nanometers. One side of the paddle is connected to a flexible,spring-like, attachment, that couples the paddles to a common base. Alsoattached to each paddle is some form of generator device, such as apiezoelectric, electromotive force or electrostatic generator, thatconverts random molecular motion into electrical, electromagnetic orthermal energy.

The nanometer-sized paddles, in conjunction with an associatedgenerator, reduce the speed of individual molecules which results in areduction of thermal energy within the working fluid. The generatedelectrical energy may be converted back to thermal energy at a highertemperature than the working fluid and used to establish a temperaturedifferential that is capable of performing useful work. Essentially, thepaddles are configured to be immersed in a working substance. Thepaddles move in a random manner within the working substance due tovariations in the thermal motion of the molecules of the workingsubstance. This movement necessarily results from collisions between themolecules of the working substance and the paddles which are largeenough to cause the paddles to oscillate. The kinetic energy from thisoscillation may then be converted into electrical, electromagnetic orthermal energy by various methods, as described above.

Nanometer scale electromechanical systems constructed in accordance withthe present invention also provide components that efficiently collectand sum the outputs of the numerous paddles so that a useful electricaloutput is produced. For example, one embodiment of the present inventionincludes the use of an array of resistive elements, one for each paddle,that are in contact with one side of the thermocouple. The other side ofthe thermocouple is placed in thermal contact with something else thatis at an ambient temperature (such as a gas or liquid). Each of thethermocouples produces an output (i.e., a DC current and voltage) thatcan be summed through a simple series connection to produce an output,depending on the number of paddles and configuration, on the order ofseveral milliwatts.

In one particular embodiment, a nanometer scale electromechanical systemconstructed in accordance with the present invention may include anarray of nanotubes, such as tubes made of carbon, which are coupledbetween two plates of a capacitor. One of the tubes is physicallyconnected to one plate of the capacitor, while the other end is free tomove. The entire assembly is immersed in a fluid (i.e., a liquid or agas). A voltage is applied to the capacitor (across the plates), whichcreates an electric field (“E”) that keeps the length of the tubesperpendicular to the surface of the capacitor plate. The “free” ends ofthe tubes, which are immersed in a working substance, move erraticallydue to collisions between the molecules of the working substance and thetubes, causing some of the tubes collide into each other. Kinetic energyof the colliding tubes, as well as other energy, may be converted forone or more useful purposes, as previously described.

In another embodiment of the present invention, numerous nanotubes areconnected at each end to an electrically and thermally conductive rail.Each of the tubes is installed such that there is slack, or bend, in thetube. The slack permits the tubes to vibrate in response to randompressure variations from surrounding fluid (gas or liquid). In thiscase, an external magnetic field (“ B”) is applied to the entireassembly which is perpendicular to the tubes and rails. Heat generatedin the tubes, from the induced current, flows down the tubes to thethermally conductive rails, which are attached to a thermally conductiveplate.

Further features of the invention, its nature and various advantageswill be more apparent from the accompanying drawings and the followingdetailed description of the preferred embodiments.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The above and other objects and advantages of the present invention willbe apparent upon consideration of the following detailed description,taken in conjunction with accompanying drawings, in which like referencecharacters refer to like parts throughout, and in which:

FIG. 1A is an illustrative schematic diagram of a portion of a nanometerscale electromechanical system constructed in accordance with thepresent invention;

FIG. 1B is an illustrative schematic diagram of one embodiment ofconversion circuitry constructed in accordance with the principles ofthe present invention;

FIG. 2 is an illustrative schematic diagram of a portion of anothernanometer scale electromechanical system constructed in accordance withthe principles of the present invention;

FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a portion of a nanometer scaleelectromechanical system constructed in accordance with the principlesof the present invention;

FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a portion of another nanometer scaleelectromechanical system constructed in accordance with the principlesof the present invention;

FIG. 5 is an illustrative schematic diagram of a nanometer scaleelectromechanical system constructed in accordance with the principlesof the present invention;

FIG. 6 is an illustrative schematic diagram of another nanometer scaleelectromechanical system constructed in accordance with the principlesof the present invention;

FIG. 7 is a perspective view of another nanometer scaleelectromechanical system constructed in accordance with the principlesof the present invention;

FIG. 8 is an illustrative schematic diagram of a portion of thenanometer scale electromechanical system of FIG. 7;

FIG. 9 is another illustrative schematic diagram of a portion of thenanometer scale electromechanical system of FIG. 7;

FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional view of another nanometer scaleelectromechanical system constructed in accordance with the principlesof the present invention;

FIG. 11 is a perspective, partial cross-sectional view of anothernanometer scale electromechanical system constructed in accordance withthe principles of the present invention;

FIG. 12 is an illustrative schematic diagram of a portion of thenanometer scale electromechanical system of FIG. 11;

FIG. 13 is a perspective, partial cross-sectional view of anothernanometer scale electromechanical system constructed in accordance withthe principles of the present invention;

FIG. 14 is an illustrative schematic diagram of a portion of thenanometer scale electromechanical system of FIG. 13;

FIG. 15 is a cross-sectional plan view of the nanometer scaleelectromechanical system of FIG. 13 taken along line 14-14;

FIG. 16 is an illustrative schematic diagram of a portion of thenanometer scale electromechanical system of FIG. 13;

FIG. 17 is an illustrative schematic diagram of an electromechanicalpropulsion system constructed in accordance with the principles of thepresent invention;

FIG. 18 is a graphical representation of a velocity versus potentialcurve for nanometer piezoelectric generator assemblies constructed inaccordance with the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 19 is an illustrative schematic diagram of a portion of analternative embodiment of a nanometer scale electromechanical systemconstructed in accordance with the present invention;

FIG. 20 is a perspective view of a portion of the nanometer scaleelectromechanical system of FIG. 19;

FIG. 21 is a cross-sectional plan view of the nanometer scaleelectromechanical system of FIG. 20 taken along line 20-20;

FIG. 22 is a perspective view of an alternative embodiment of nanometerscale electromechanical systems constructed in accordance with theprinciples of the present invention;

FIG. 23 is an illustrative schematic diagram of an array of thenanometer scale electromechanical systems of FIG. 22;

FIG. 24 is a cross-sectional plan view of the nanometer scaleelectromechanical system of FIG. 22 taken along line 22-22;

FIG. 25 is a perspective view of an array of the nanometer scaleelectromechanical systems of FIG. 22;

FIG. 26 is a circuit schematic of a nanometer scale transistorconstructed in accordance with the principles of the present invention;

FIG. 27 is a perspective view of one embodiment of a nanometer scaletransistor of FIG. 26;

FIG. 28 is a circuit schematic of a nanometer scale electromechanicalsystem constructed in accordance with the principles of the presentinvention; and

FIG. 29 is a circuit schematic of a nanometer scale electromechanicalsystem constructed in accordance with the principles of the presentinvention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

FIG. 1A shows an illustrative example of a portion of a nanometer scaleelectromechanical system constructed in accordance with the presentinvention. The portion shown includes an impact mass in the form ofpaddle 100, a restraining member 102, an generator device 104 (whichprovides an electrical output at leads 106), and a base 108 (which istypically thousands or millions times larger than paddle 100). Paddle100 is attached to base 108, which may be thermally conductive, but neednot be, so that paddle 100 may be moved within a predetermined range ofdistance in one or more directions (such as laterally, or up and down).A complete energy conversion system using nanometer scale assemblieswould typically include a million or more of the devices shown in FIG.1A, as will become more apparent below (see, for example, FIGS. 5 and6).

Paddle 100 may be constructed, for example, from a substance such ascarbon or silicon, although persons skilled in the art will appreciatethat variations may be made in the fabrication materials of paddle 100without departing from the spirit of the present invention. Moreover,paddle 100 can generally be manufactured using known semiconductorfabrication techniques such as sputtering, etching, photolithography,etc.

In addition, each paddle 100 may be constructed to be about fivenanometers on each side, and have a height of about one to twonanometers—this size being selected so that the effects of Brownianmotion are large enough to overcome inertia of paddle 100 and the springconstant of restraining member 102. Persons skilled in the art willappreciate that the specific size of paddle 100 is not critical to thebasic operation of the present invention, provided that paddle 100 isable to move in an irregular manner within the working substance as aresult of random variations in the velocity of the working substancemolecules that strike paddle 100.

Also shown in FIG. 1A, is molecule 110 which is shown as having bouncedoff of paddle 100, and is now traveling at a reduced velocity. Personsskilled in the art will appreciate that, while some molecules will havea reduced velocity as a result of the impact, others may exhibit littlechange in velocity, and others may actually achieve an increasedvelocity. In general however, and in accordance with the presentinvention, the impact of molecule 110 with paddle 100 results, on theaverage, with a reduction in velocity.

The molecule is a molecule of the working substance of the system, whichis preferably a fluid (i.e., a gas or a liquid), but may also be asolid. The fluid may be kept at atmospheric pressure or it may be keptat an elevated pressure, such as, for example a pressure in excess ofabout 15 PSI. As described above, the pressure of the working fluid mayhave an impact in the output provided by the system. Molecule 110strikes paddle 100, thereby causing molecule 110 to experience areduction in velocity. The reduction in velocity corresponds to areduction in temperature of the working substance of the system.

The reduction in velocity of molecule 110 is caused by paddle 100 inconjunction with device 104, which may be any one of a variety ofdevices without departing from the present invention. For example,device 104 may be a piezoelectric device, or it may be a electromotiveforce or electrostatic generator. In each instance, device 104 convertsthe energy of the impact mass, from the impact of molecule 110 intoimpact mass 100, into electrical energy that is output via leads 106.

The amount of electrical energy output via leads 106, even under themost favorable conditions will be very small. For example, the output ofpaddle 100 may be on the order of about 10⁻¹² watts, depending on thesize of the device and various other factors. Accordingly, for thesystem to provide useful output power, such as, for example, a fewmicrowatts, the system requires that millions of such paddles befabricated, and that they be connected together in some fashion, so thatthe outputs of all, or substantially all, of them can be summed into asingle output signal.

If a million or so of paddles 100 were arranged together in an array(see, for example, FIGS. 5 and 6), one way to sum all of the energy fromeach of those paddles would be to couple the leads 106 of each paddle100 to resistive element 112 (see FIG. 1B), and have resistive element112 be in thermal contact with one side 114 of thermocouple 116. Theother side 118 of thermocouple 116 would then be in thermal contact witha heat sink or some other substance at ambient temperature (which mayeven include the working substance itself). Thermocouple 116 is athermoelectric generator that, in response to a temperaturedifferential, produces a voltage across a pair of leads and, if theleads are connected to a load, a DC current.

Variations in molecular impacts on paddle 100 will cause an increase inthe temperature of resistive element 112, which will then be convertedinto electrical energy by thermocouple 116 and output via leads 120. Oneadvantage of the use of resistive elements is the fact that, because aresistive load is independent of current/polarity direction, there is noneed for a rectifier associated with each paddle. Thus, in accordancewith the present invention, even infinitesimal voltages produced by theimpacts of molecules 110 on paddles 100 can be used to heat resistiveelements to useful values. Each thermocouple in the array, in turn,produces an output having a DC voltage, and current if connected throughan electrical load. All of these outputs can then be connected togetherin series to produce an output of at least several microwatts.

If additional power is needed, numerous subassemblies of paddles couldbe coupled together in series. For example, if a given subassembly wasformed to include an array of paddle assemblies in which each assemblyoccupied approximately one hundred square nanometers, a squarecentimeter assembly would include roughly one trillion paddleassemblies. Then, any number of the one square centimeter subassembliescould be coupled together in series or parallel to achieve the desiredratio of voltage and current.

In addition, with a combined output on the order of approximately 700mV, the output of each one square centimeter assembly could even bemanipulated using conventional semiconductor switches. Thus, a givencomponent could be fabricated by fabricating many one square centimeterassemblies next to each other on a thin, flexible sheet of material(such as aluminum) in a continuous process. The resultant sheets ofmaterial could then be cut up and rolled into a tube, similar to thefabrication process of some capacitors.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the electrical output ofthese devices per unit surface area is proportional to the pressure ofthe fluid, the average temperature of the fluid, the oscillationfrequency of the paddle and the mass of the fluid molecules used(regardless of whether the fluid is a gas or a liquid). The output perunit area is inversely proportional to the size of the paddle and thedensity of the paddle material. Accordingly, by choosing a heavymolecule gas, such as xenon, or by using a fluid heavily laden withparticulate, such as air laden with carbon molecules, and/or byimmersing the paddles in the gas at elevated pressure, such as 100 timesatmospheric pressure, the power output of the units can be increased bya factor of over 100, as compared with units operating in air atatmospheric pressure.

FIG. 2 shows a alternate embodiment of the paddle assembly shown inFIG. 1. In particular, the assembly in FIG. 2 varies from that in FIG. 1in that restraining member 102 is coupled to a housing 208 instead ofbase 108. Housing 208 is a thermally conductive chamber which includesthe ability to receive thermal inputs (shown as “Q” in FIG. 2). In thisembodiment, the influx of heat Q is converted into electrical energythat is output via each of leads 106. In addition, while the assemblyshown in FIG. 1 does not include a housing, it may be desirable, but iscertainly not required, to locate that assembly in a housing as well, ifonly to protect it from contaminates.

The embodiment shown in FIG. 2 may be used to illustrate one of theadvantages of the present invention, in that the nanometer scale energyconversion systems of the present invention may be used as a heat pump.For example, thermally conductive housing 208 will be cooled as a resultof the molecular impacts on paddles 100 and subsequent conversion of thepaddle kinetic energy into electrical energy. Warm or hot air may becooled by blowing it across housing 208. On the other hand, resistiveload 112 may be connected in series with leads 106, which results in thetemperature of resistive load 112 being raised. Cool air may be warmedby blowing it over resistive load 112. In this manner, the same assemblymay be used to heat an external substance or to cool an externalsubstance.

FIG. 3 shows another embodiment of a portion of a nanometer scaleelectromechanical system 300 constructed in accordance with theprinciples of the present invention. The portion of system 300 shown inFIG. 3 includes three paddle assemblies 302, 322 and 342, which are eachcoupled to one of piezoelectric generators 304, 324 and 344. Each ofpaddle assemblies 302, 322 and 342 is somewhat similar to paddleassembly 100 of FIG. 1, in that each paddle assembly shown in FIG. 3also includes a substantially planar surface that is held in place suchthat it may move in response to molecular impacts. In this instance,paddle assemblies 302, 322 and 342 are attached at one end which isgenerally referred to by numeral 380 in FIG. 3.

The piezoelectric generators are each formed from a portion ofpiezoelectric material and a resistor assembly. Generator 324, forexample, which is substantially similar to generators 304 and 344, isillustrated to show the division between piezoelectric material 326 andresistor assembly 328. However, the division between the piezoelectricportion and the resistor assembly may also be observed in FIG. 3 forgenerators 304 and 344.

Resistor assemblies 308, 328 and 348 are each connected to two wiresthat are made from different material. For example, each of wires 307,327 and 347 are made from one material, while wires 309, 329 and 349 areall made from a different material. The other end of all of the wiresare connected to a series of heat sinks 360, which are themselvesmechanically coupled to a substrate 370 (which may, for example, be asilicon substrate). It should be noted that paddle assemblies 302, 322and 342 are only connected to substrate 370 at one end, generallyreferred to by reference number 380, so that, for example, the paddleassemblies may easily vibrate up and down.

System 300 operates in accordance with the present invention as follows.The entire system is immersed in a fluid (i.e., a liquid or a gas) thatis the working substance. Statistical variations in the velocity ofworking substance molecules that strike paddle 302, for example, causethe free end of paddle 302 to vibrate up and down. The up and downmotion of paddle 302 causes strain in piezoelectric material 306, whichgenerates a voltage between lower conductive outer layer 385 and upperconductive layer 387 of material 306.

Outer conductive layers 385 and 387 of material 306 are in contact withresistor assembly 308, so that a current flows from material 306 throughresistor 308 and back to material 306. The current through resistor 308heats up the resistor, which is coupled to one side of thethermoelectric generator formed by wires 307 and 309 (which, asdescribed above, are made from different materials). The other side ofthe thermoelectric generator (which may also be referred to as athermocouple) is coupled to heat sinks 360, which are at a lowertemperature. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that otherdevices may be used, such as thermal to electric heat engines (such as,for example, a thermionic heat engine), rather than thermoelectricgenerators described herein, without departing from the spirit of thepresent invention.

The temperature differential causes the thermoelectric generator toproduce a voltage, which, as described more fully below, may be combinedwith the voltages from other paddle assemblies to provide a systemoutput voltage. These voltages, in accordance with the presentinvention, may be coupled together in series to produce an electricaloutput at a useable level from system 300. The process of summingvoltages from each paddle assembly is more particularly illustrated withrespect to FIGS. 5 and 6 below.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that, while system 300 hasbeen described as a system that converts kinetic energy of the impactmass (resulting from the Brownian motion of the impact mass immersed ina working substance) to AC electrical energy to thermal energy and to DCelectrical energy, system 300 may, with minor changes, directly produceDC electric energy as a result of this kinetic energy.

In particular, it should be noted that movement of paddle 302 upward andthen downward to its resting location generates a voltage of onepolarity. Movement downward and then upward back to the resting locationgenerates a voltage in the opposite polarity. Thus, in accordance withthe present invention, paddles 302 can be substantially limited tomoving between a neutral point (i.e., the resting location) and a singlelimit point (versus normal vibration that goes from a first limit point,through the neutral point to a second limit point and back).

Accordingly, if paddle 302 were limited to “upward” movement by placingan object at location 303 (i.e., toward the free end of paddle 302), theoutput voltage would be limited to one polarity (essentially, pulsatingDC). In such a configuration, the outputs of the piezoelectricgenerators (such as generator 304) could be directly coupled together inseries, which would eliminate the need of, for example, resistorassembly 308, wires 307 and 309 and heat sinks 360, while stillproviding useful levels of electrical power without the need forrectification circuitry.

FIG. 4 shows another embodiment of a portion of a nanometer scaleelectromechanical system 400 constructed in accordance with theprinciples of the present invention. The portion of system 400 shown inFIG. 4 includes three paddle assemblies 402, 422 and 442, which are eachcoupled to one of piezoelectric generators 304, 324 and 344 (which weredescribed above with respect to FIG. 3).

As shown in FIG. 4, each of the paddle assemblies 402, 422 and 442includes an impact mass 490 and a multitude of nanotubes 492 that aremounted on impact mass 490 such that they are substantiallyperpendicular to impact mass 490. Each of nanotubes 492 may, forexample, be constructed of a material such as carbon, having a diameterof about approximately 2 nanometers and a height of about approximately25-50 nanometers (persons skilled in the art will appreciate that thedimensions of nanotubes 492 may be varied without departing from thespirit of the present invention). Moreover, the stiffness and alignmentof nanotubes 492 may be controlled by the application of a staticvoltage, such as that shown in FIG. 7, and described below.

System 400 operates in very much the same way as previously describedfor system 300. Statistical variation in gas pressure about paddles 402,422 and 442 cause the free end of paddle 402 to vibrate up and down,thereby causing strain in the piezoelectric material, which generates avoltage on the conductive outer layers of the piezoelectric material. Insystem 400, however, the up and down motion of the paddles in system 400may be enhanced by nanotubes 492, which cause additional molecularimpacts.

The outer conductive layers of the piezoelectric material are in contactwith resistor assembly, so that a current flows, which heats up theresistor. The thermoelectric generator formed, for example, by wires 307and 309 is between the heated resistor and the heat sinks 360, which areat a lower temperature. The temperature differential causes thethermoelectric generator to produce a voltage.

FIGS. 5 and 6 show two similar configurations of nanometer scaleelectromechanical systems 500 and 600, respectively, that are eachconstructed in accordance with the principles of the present invention.Systems 500 and 600 each include a multitude of paddle assemblies 302,coupled to generators 304 which are themselves, coupled to wires 307 and309 that are connected to heat sinks 360. This may be more apparent byviewing the dashed box showing where the portion of system 300 of FIG.3, for example, may be found. As shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, systems 500 and600 each include ninety paddle assemblies 302 and the associatedcomponents (i.e., generators, wires and heat sinks).

In practice, nanometer scale electromechanical systems constructedaccordance with the present invention may include a billion or morepaddle assemblies on a single substrate. The output voltage across eachpair of wires extending from each thermoelectric generator on a singlesubstrate are, in accordance with the present invention, coupledtogether in series to provide a single output signal for the system.That output signal may have a voltage that may be on the order of avolt, depending on the number of individual components used and thespecific fabrication techniques used to manufacture those components.The primary difference between systems 500 and 600, is that system 500includes a load resistor 502 while system 600 does not.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that, while load resistor 502is shown as being mounted to substrate 370, it may be preferable tothermally isolate load resistor from the working fluid substrate 370 isimmersed in so that heat dissipated by load resistor 502 does not affectthe temperature of the working fluid.

FIG. 7 shows another embodiment of a nanometer scale electromechanicalsystem 700 constructed in accordance with the principles of the presentinvention. System 700 includes an array of nanotubes 702 located betweenan upper plate 704 and lower plate 706 of capacitor 708, and a source ofvoltage 710, which is also coupled across the plates of capacitor 708.Each of nanotubes 702 may, for example, be constructed of a materialsuch as carbon, having a diameter of about approximately 2 nanometersand a height of about approximately 25-50 nanometers (persons skilled inthe art will appreciate that the dimensions of nanotubes 702 may bevaried without departing from the spirit of the present invention).

One end of each nanotube 702 is fixed to lower plate 706 of capacitor708. The other end of each nanotube 702 is free to move. The entireassembly 700 is then typically immersed in a fluid (i.e., gas orliquid). Once a voltage V is applied from source 710 across the platesof capacitor 708, an electric field E is produced that creates a forcethat helps keep the length of nanotubes 702 oriented substantiallyperpendicular with the surface of capacitor plates 704 and 706.Statistical variations in the speed and direction of working fluidmolecules which strike nanotubes 702 cause statistical variations influid pressure about nanotubes 702 which, in turn, cause nanotubes 702to move erratically as illustrated in FIGS. 8 and 9.

As shown in FIG. 8, nanotubes 802 and 822 (which are simply any twoadjacent nanotubes 702) are substantially perpendicular to lowercapacitor plate 706 even though individual molecules 110 have recentlyimpacted each nanotube. In this instance, there is no variation in thegas pressure on either side of the nanotubes, and the tubes remainerect. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that, while theinteraction of two nanotubes is shown, the molecular impact of thousandsor millions of nanotubes would be occurring simultaneously.

FIG. 9, on the other hand, illustrates the effect of statisticalvariation in fluid pressure about nanotubes 902 and 922 (which, likenanotubes 802 and 822, are simply two adjacent nanotubes 702) resultingfrom variations in the thermal movement of working fluid molecules,which cause the free ends of nanotubes 902 and 922 to collide atlocation 930. The kinetic energy of colliding nanotubes 902 and 922 ispartially converted into thermal energy as a result of the friction fromcontact and as the tubes slide past each other. The thermal energy isconducted down the length of nanotubes 902 and 922 to thermallyconductive plate 706.

In addition, as illustrated in FIGS. 8 and 9, each of nanotubes 702 (ornanotubes 802, 822, 902 and 922) has an electrostatic charge due to theelectric field E between capacitor plates 704 and 706. The collision ofnanotubes 902 and 922 further dissipates tube kinetic energy byaccelerating electrical charges, which in turn produces electromagneticwaves, at the free end of the nanotubes. In this manner, a portion ofthe kinetic energy of the working fluid is transferred to lowercapacitor plate 706, and to the surrounding space, as electromagneticenergy resulting in a net effect of cooling the working substance andheating lower capacitor plate 706. This temperature differential maythen be used to directly heat or cool an area of space or to power aheat engine.

FIG. 10 shows another embodiment of a nanometer scale electromechanicalassembly 1000 constructed in accordance with the present invention.Assembly 1000 includes many nanotubes 1002, all connected to a base1004. Unlike the previous embodiments, nanotubes 1002 are closed attheir upper end such that gas molecules are captured within eachnanotube 1002. In addition, as shown in FIG. 10, at least one moleculein each nanotube 1002 is electrically charged (for example, individualnanotube 1012 includes at least one positively charged molecule, whileindividual nanotube 1022 includes at least one negatively chargedmolecule).

Assembly 1000 is configured such that the net charge of nanotubes 1002in the assembly is zero, with half of the tubes including positivecharges and the other half including negative charges. In thisembodiment, as the charged molecules bounce against the nanotube wallsand the other molecules within the nanotubes, an acceleration of chargeresults that generates electromagnetic waves which pass through the tubeassembly to the surrounding space. As a result of the electromagneticradiation, gas within nanotubes 1002 cools, which cools thermallyconductive base 1004. In this instance, the reduced temperature of base1004 may be utilized to cool a volume of fluid, or can be used as the“cold side” of a heat engine, as will be apparent to persons skilled inthe art.

FIG. 11 shows a nanometer scale electromechanical assembly 1100constructed in accordance with the principles of the present invention.Assembly 1100 includes a series of nanometer members 1102 that areconnected between a pair of electrically and thermally conductive rails1104 and 1106. In this embodiment, nanometer members 1102 are carbonnanotubes and each one of nanotubes 1102 is provided with some slack,which enables the nanotubes to vibrate in reaction to random pressurevariations in the surrounding working substance. Rails 1104 and 1106 aremounted to and in thermal contact with thermally conductive base 1108.

It should be noted that various other nanometer members may be used inaccordance with the present invention instead of the nanotubes describedherein. For example, the principles of the present invention may becarried out using essentially any electrically conductive material thatmay be formed into very small fibers. This may include simple carbonfibers instead of nanotubes.

The nanometer members shown in FIGS. 11 and 12 (as well as those ofFIGS. 13-16 discussed below) perform additional functions when comparedto, for example, the previously described paddles. For example, thenanometer members of FIGS. 11-16 all function as the impact mass whilecontributing to the functions of the previously described restrainingmember and generator device. In addition, the nanometer members of FIGS.11 and 12 also function as the resistive element (FIGS. 13-16 includeresistive element 1304, as described more fully below).

Attached to thermally conductive base 1108, in accordance with theprinciples of the present invention, is a thermal insulation material1110 that covers at least a majority of the otherwise exposed portionsof conductive base 1108. The use of insulation 1110 aides in theprevention of thermal energy losses. Moreover, persons skilled in theart will appreciate that similar insulation may be utilized in thepreviously described embodiments to further increase the efficiency ofthose systems and assemblies.

An external magnetic field (shown as “ B” in FIG. 11) penetratesassembly 1100 which is perpendicular to rails 1104 and 1106 and base1108. The operation of assembly 1100 is illustrated in FIG. 12, whichshows a portion of rails 1104 and 1106, and includes two individualnanotubes 1202 and 1222 (which are simply two adjacent nanotubes 1102).Nanotubes 1202 and 1222, which are immersed in a working substance, movein an irregular manner from the relaxed “rest” position (shown asstraight dotted lines 1203 and 1223) due to random variations in thethermal motion of the molecules of the working substance. Motion ofnanotubes 1202 and 1222 in the presence of the magnetic field {circlearound (×)} B induces an electric field E along the length of nanotubes1202 and 1222 (as shown in FIG. 12).

Field E induces current “i” to flow that flows from one nanotube, downone rail, across the other nanotube, and up the other rail (which, whileillustrated as a clockwise current, may be counterclockwise at someother point in time when the direction of the motion of the nanotubeschanges, thereby producing AC current). The current flow through thenanotubes and rails causes resistive heating and causes heat to travelalong the nanotubes and rails to conductive base 1108. Fluid (either gasor liquid) surrounding the nanotubes cools while base 1108 heats up,thereby establishing a temperature differential that may be used in avariety of ways (such as the heat pump, or heat engine previouslydescribed).

FIGS. 13-16 show a further illustration of the use of insulation inaccordance with the principles of the present invention in assembly1300. Assembly 1300 is similar to assembly 1100 of FIG. 11 in manyaspects. Assembly 1300 also includes nanotubes 1302 that are immersed ina working substance. Moreover, as described above with respect tonanotubes 1102, nanotubes 1302 are installed with slack such that theycan move in an irregular manner due to random fluctuations in thethermal motion of the molecules of the working substance.

Assembly 1300 also relies on an external magnetic field B. As previouslydescribed, motion of nanotubes 1302 through the magnetic field B inducesan AC current to flow, which in this case, is directed through aresistor 1304 located directly below each of nanotubes 1302. The valueof resistor 1304 may be chosen to be about twice the resistance of thenanotube, in which case the majority of power generated is dissipated asheat through the resistor.

Assembly 1300 is configured such that the resistors 1304 are locatedbelow insulating layer 1310 and above thermally conductive sheet 1312.This results in directing most of the generated power and heat downwardinto assembly 1300, rather than up into the working fluid. Moreover,rather than using rails, assembly 1300 utilizes posts 1306, so that onlya limited amount of surface area that is at an elevated temperature isexposed to the working fluid. Resistors 1304, posts 1306 and theresistor leads are electrically insulated from thermally conductivesheet 1312 by a thin layer of electrical insulation 1314 that isdeposited on top of conductive layer 1312.

Heat from resistor 1304 raises the temperature of thermally conductivesheet 1312. The bottom of conductive sheet 1312 is in thermal contactwith a “HOT” portion 1330 of a thermoelectric generator 1334 (sheet 1312is electrically insulated from hot portion 1330 via electricallyinsulating sheet 1316). A second thermally conductive sheet 1322 is inthermal contact with a “COLD” portion 1332 of a thermoelectric generator1334 (while the two are electrically insulated by thin layer 1318). Inthis manner, generated heat is directed from resistors 1304 downwardthrough assembly 1300 and out the bottom of lower layer 1322.

Temperature differentials between the HOT and COLD portions (1330 and1332, respectively) of thermoelectric generator 1334 create a DC voltageacross each junction. By interconnecting a multitude of these junctionstogether in series, assembly 1300 may be used to provide a useablevoltage which may be about at least 1 volt, as was previously describedfor the other embodiments. When assembly 1300 is used to drive a load,such that the load is connected in series to thermoelectric generator1334, and the working fluid is being cooled or maintained within apredetermined temperature range, improved efficiency of the system willbe obtained by keeping the load away from the working fluid so thatdissipated power in the load does not affect the temperature of theworking fluid.

Moreover, as can be viewed most clearly in FIG. 15, additional layers ofthermal insulation are used to separate the HOT portions of assembly1300 from the COLD portions of assembly 1300. In particular, assembly1300 also includes insulating layer 1342 sandwiched between conductivesheet 1312 (actually, as shown, layer 1342 is below electricalinsulating layer 1316) and COLD portion 1332. Insulating layer 1352, onthe other hand, is located between a second conductive sheet 1322 andHOT portion 1330 (actually, as shown, layer 1352 is underneathelectrically insulating layer 1318). These insulating layers increasethe temperature difference between HOT and COLD portions ofthermoelectric generator, thus increasing the electrical output ofthermoelectric generator 1334.

Operation of assembly 1300 is similar to assembly 1100, and isillustrated with respect to FIG. 16. Movement of nanotubes 1302 in theexternal magnetic field {circle around (×)} B induces a current “i” toflow as shown in FIG. 16. In this case, though, the current from eachindividual nanotube 1302 remains in a self-contained circuit, along withthe corresponding resistor 1304. For example, the current induced inindividual nanotube 1342 remains in an “isolated” circuit withindividual resistor 1344, rather than interacting with an adjacentnanotube, as was described with respect to assembly 1100. Once again,persons skilled in the art will appreciate that, while the movement oftwo nanotubes is shown, the movement of millions or billions ofnanotubes would be occurring simultaneously.

Persons skilled in the art should appreciate that, while it may appearthat an individual thermoelectric generator portion is available foreach individual nanotube 1302, is will likely be impractical and orprohibitively expensive to implement such a configuration. Thus, it maybe more likely that, in accordance with the present invention, several,if not millions, of nanotubes 1302 will be thermally coupled to eachindividual portion of thermoelectric generator 1334.

FIG. 17 shows a propulsion system 1700 constructed in accordance withthe present invention in which an object immersed in a working substanceis moved in a controllable direction as a result of variations inmolecular impacts of working substance molecules into the object. System1700 includes sphere 1702 and a series of electromagnets 1704, 1706,1708, 1710, 1712 and 1714 (1712 and 1714 are shown as a single pair ofdotted lines) arranged axially about electronics core 1716 (axiallysimply refers to the fact that there is one electromagnet locatedparallel to each of the six sides of electronics core 1716, and thateach electromagnet may have its center aligned with an imaginary axisextending perpendicular to the core surface). These electromagnets,along with a control system form a drive system that, as set forth inmore detail below, helps to propel sphere 1702.

Sphere 1702 may be any three-dimensional object. Although a sphere isshown, other shapes such as a cube, cylinder, etc., may be used. Thesurface of sphere 1702 is covered with nanometer scale assemblies, suchas a series of nanotubes, that are mounted to the surface with someslack, as described above with respect to FIGS. 11-16.

Electromagnets 1704, 1706, 1708, 1710, 1712 and 1714 may be poweredfrom, for example, a battery or some other source. In any case, externalpower is provided to electronics core 1716 that is then provided to theappropriate electromagnets, as described below.

Assuming sphere 1702 is located in a fluid maintained at non-zerotemperature, when one electromagnet is energized, such as electromagnet1704, the resultant magnetic field 1718, along with the nanotubeassembly, lowers the fluid pressure immediately above the surface. Thereduced pressure causes sphere 1702 to move in direction 1720 (if thepropulsion force is strong enough). If, for example, electromagnet 1710is also energized, thereby establishing magnetic field 1722, a force1724 also affects sphere 1702. In this instance, sphere 1702 would bepropelled along a vector 45 degrees away from magnetic axes 1718 and1722 (as shown by arrow 1726). By varying the current supplied to eachof the electromagnets, the movement of sphere 1702 through a fluid canbe controlled.

Turning back to FIG. 3, persons skilled in the art will recognize thatJohnson noise may be present in system 300. Johnson noise is a result ofthe random movement of carriers, generally brought about because oftemperature vibrations, in the body of a resistor that generates anunwanted voltage. Although Johnson noise is typically not a problem incentimeter scale resistors that are employed to regulate standardvoltages (e.g., 124 volts), Johnson noise can be troublesome innanometer scale resistors because the Johnson noise may cancel all, orsome, of the infinitesimally small voltages that need to be regulated.Because piezoelectric generators 304, 324, and 344 of system 300generate infinitesimally small voltages around resistors 308, 328, and348, respectively, Johnson noise in these resistors may cancel a portionof the system's output power.

To mitigate the effects of Johnson noise from system 300, automaticswitches may be included to selectively couple piezoelectric generators304, 324, and 344 with resistors 308, 328, and 348, respectively. Whensuch an automatic switch is ON, a closed circuit exists between the twocomponents that allows the resistor to draw current from thepiezoelectric generator's potential. When such an automatic switch isOFF, an open circuit exists between the two components and no potentialwill be applied across the resistor. In controlling the ON and OFF timesof the automatic switches with respect to the amount of potentialgenerated by the piezoelectric generators, the voltages regulated by theresistors can be controlled. This “turn-on” voltage would preferably begreater than the average voltage created by Johnson noise, thusessentially removing the negative effects of Johnson noise from thesystem.

Graph 1800 of FIG. 18 shows Maxwellian distribution curve 1800 withrespect to vertical axis 1801 and horizontal axis 1802. Particularly,vertical axis 1801 represents the number of possible molecules in aworking substance. Horizontal axis 1802 represents the possiblevelocities for a molecule in a working substance. Maxwellian curve 1800therefore shows the range of velocities that molecules have in a workingsubstance. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that Maxwelliancurve 1800 will distort depending on a variety of factors. For example,if the temperature of the working substance increases, Maxwellian curve1800 will take on a different shape as the average speed of a moleculeincreases.

Looking at graph 1800, it becomes apparent that, at any one time,multiple molecules having a wide range of velocities may impact paddles302, 322, and 342 of FIG. 3. Accordingly, paddles 302, 322, and 342 willbend according to the force created by these impacts. At any instance,hundreds, or even thousands, of molecules may impact paddles 302, 322,and 342. As previously stated, the automatic switches of the presentinvention are preferably constructed such that piezoelectric generators304, 324, and 344 couple to resistors 308, 328, and 348 when thepotential generated by piezoelectric generators 304, 324, and 344 isgreater than the Johnson noise present in resistors 308, 328, and 348.Because the amount of potential created by system 300 of FIG. 3 isindicative of the amount of force applied to paddles 302, 322, and 342,persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the automatic switchesmay be constructed such that piezoelectric generators 304, 324, and 344couple resistors 308, 328, and 348, respectively, when the total forceof all the molecules impacting on paddles 302, 322, and 342 has at leasta particular magnitude and a particular direction.

As will be described later in conjunction with system 2700 of FIG. 27,systems of the present invention do not have to be immersed in a workingsubstance in order to operate. More particularly, an object willoscillate at an average speed that is proportional to its temperatureand inversely proportional to its mass. Thus, the embodiments of thepresent invention may operate in a vacuum and may be excited bytemperature. Heat sources may therefore be included. These heat sourcesmay be low grade heat sources (e.g., body heat) or the heat provided bysunlight. Although such embodiments do not require a surrounding fluidto operate, immersing them in a working substance may be beneficial.

FIG. 19. illustrates an example of a portion of a nanoelectromechanicalsystem 1900 utilizing paddle 1901 configured with automatic switch 912constructed in accordance with the present invention. System 1900includes an impact mass in the form of paddle 1901, restraining member1902, generator device 1904 (which provides an electrical output atleads 1906 dependent on the state of switch 1912), and base 1908 (whichis typically thousands, or millions, times larger than paddle 1900).Paddle 1901 is attached to base 1908, which may be thermally conductive,but need not be, so that paddle 1901 may be moved within a predeterminedrange of distance in one or more directions (such as laterally, or upand down).

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that more than onerestraining member 1902 may connect paddle 1910 to base 1908. Forexample, two opposite ends of paddle 1901 may be restrained by twoseparate restraining members 1902. In such an embodiment, paddle 1901may take the form of a net and produce a infinitesimally small, yetuseable, potential when impacted by a molecule or a group of molecules.

Also shown in FIG. 19, molecule 1910 is shown as having bounced off ofpaddle 1901, and is now traveling at a reduced velocity. Persons skilledin the art will appreciate that, while some molecules will have areduced velocity as a result of the impact, others may exhibit littlechange in velocity, and others may actually achieve an increasedvelocity. In general, however, the impact of molecule 1910 with paddle1901 results, on average, with a reduction in velocity.

Molecule 1910 is preferably a molecule of the working substance of thesystem, which is preferably a fluid (e.g., a gas or a liquid), but mayalso be a solid. As described above, the pressure of the working fluidmay have an impact in the output provided by the system. Thus, it may bepreferable to submerse system 1900 in a working substance with a largedensity of molecules moving at high velocities. Heat may also beintroduced on this working substance in order to increase the velocitiesof the molecules that the working substance contains.

The reduction in velocity of molecule 1910 is caused by paddle 1901 inconjunction with device 1904, which may be any one of a variety ofdevices without departing from the principles of the present invention.For example, device 1904 may be a piezoelectric device, or it may be aelectromotive force or electrostatic generator. In each instance, device1904 converts the kinetic energy of the impact mass, from the impact ofmolecule 1910 into impact mass 1900, into output electrical energy vialeads 1906.

The amount of electrical output via leads 1906, even under the mostfavorable conditions, will be very small. For example, the output ofpaddle 1900 may be on the order of about 10⁻¹² watts, depending on thesize of the device and various other factors. Accordingly, for thesystem to provide useful output power, such as, for example, a fewmicrowatts, the system requires that millions of such paddles befabricated and connected together, such that the outputs of all, orsubstantially all of the systems, can be summed into a single outputsignal.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that system 1900 may operatewithout a working substance. More particularly, system 1900 may operatein a vacuum and paddle 1901 may vibrate due to its finite temperature.

As discussed above, Johnson noise of the electrical circuit thatincludes elements coupled to leads 1906 may cancel some or all of agenerator's output power if the voltage of generator 1904 is not largeenough. Switch 1912 may be included at leads 1906 to control when theoutput power of paddle 1901 is utilized. Switch 1912 may be configuredso that the output power of generator 1904 is only utilized when aminimum amount of voltage has been created. Preferably, this minimumamount of voltage will be greater than the average amount of voltagecreated by Johnson noise of the circuit elements coupled to leads 1906.

The direction that a paddle is moved by a working substance (or by itsown thermal vibrations) affects the direction that paddle 1901 is moved.Different directional stresses on paddle 1900 may result in differentpolarities of voltages being produced. It should be noted that in theillustrated embodiment of system 1900, movement of paddle 1901 upwardfrom its resting location and then downward to its resting locationgenerates a voltage of one polarity. Movement downward and then upwardback to the resting location generates a voltage in the oppositepolarity. In this manner, when a paddle is struck by a molecule, thepaddle may vibrate between both sides of the resting location and createpotentials of both polarities (e.g. an AC voltage). Accordingly, switch1906 can be constructed to open only when a minimum voltage of aspecific polarity is achieved by the paddle. In other words, switch 1912can also be used to create a pulsating DC voltage.

FIG. 20 is a perspective view of a portion of nanometer scaleelectromechanical system 2000 constructed with an automatic switch thatreduces the effects of Johnson noise while forming a randomly pulsatingDC output voltage. System 2000 is similar to system 300 of FIG. 3.However, system 2000 includes switch 2091 and integrates thepiezoelectric layer into the paddle assemblies (e.g, paddle assemblies2002, 2022, and 2042). In system 2000, the paddle assemblies arepiezoelectric generators configured as paddles.

For example, paddle assembly 2042 is a piezoelectric generator formed byupper conductive layer 2044, piezoelectric material 2046, and lowerconductive layer 2045. Thus, when paddle assembly 2042 absorbs energyfrom impacting molecules (or its own thermal vibrations in a vacuum),piezoelectric material 2046 will be stressed and a potential will beformed between upper conductive layer 2044 and lower conductive layer2045. When this potential is connected to resistor assembly 2048, acurrent will flow through resistor assembly 2048. Heat is produced as abyproduct of current flowing through resistor assembly 2048. This heatcan be captured by a thermoelectric generator or it can be used to heata different substance.

Automatic switch 2091 influences when paddle assembly 2042 will beattached to resistor assembly 2048. Thus, switch 2091 influences whenthe voltage generating attributes of paddle assembly 2024 are attachedto resistor assembly 2048. Specifically, one side of resistor assemblyis attached to upper conductive layer 2044. The opposite side ofresistor assembly 2048 is connected to switch 2091 via conductiveextension 2092.

Automatic switch 2091 is placed near paddle assembly 2042 such that whenpaddle assembly 2042 is in a resting location, lower conductive layer2045 does not come into contact with switch 2091 and an open circuitexists between paddle assembly 2042 and resistor assembly 2048. However,switch 2091 is also preferably placed near paddle assembly 2042 so thatwhen paddle assembly 2042 is displaced a desired distance from itsresting location, lower conductive layer 2045 comes into contact withswitch 2091 and a closed circuit exists between paddle assembly 2042 andresistor assembly 2048. An isolating layer 2093 may be placed toseparate lower conductive layer 2045 from layer 2092.

Decreasing the distance between automatic switch 2091 and the restinglocation of paddle assembly 2042 will increase the number of times thatlower conductive layer 2045 will come into contact with switch 2091 perunit time when system 2000 is immersed into a working substance. Personsskilled in the art will appreciate that system 2000 may also work in avacuum that does not contain any working substance. Such a system mayutilize the thermal characteristics of the paddle itself. In particular,paddle assembly 2042 may oscillate due to thermal vibrations. In thismanner, if the distance between switch 2091 and the resting location ofpaddle assembly 2042 is decreased then the number of times that lowerconductive layer 2045 will come into contact with switch 2091 will,preferably, increase.

Persons skilled in the art will recognize that shifting the position ofautomatic switch 2091 laterally underneath paddle assembly 2042 may alsoincrease, or decrease, the number of times that lower conductive layer2045 may come into contact with automatic switch 2091. Similarly,increasing the distance between automatic switch 2091 and the restinglocation of paddle assembly 2048, or the location of switch 2091, willdecrease the number of times that lower conductive layer 2045 will comeinto contact with automatic switch 2091.

In increasing the distance between switch 2091 and the resting locationof paddle assembly 2042, the amount of force needed to close paddleassembly 2042 to switch 2091 also increases. This increased amount offorce is directly proportional to the amount of stress induced uponpiezoelectric layer 2046 of paddle assembly 2042. Thus, this increasedamount of force will result in a higher potential being created in thepiezoelectric generator. To minimize the effects of Johnson noise inresistor assembly 2048, the distance between automatic switch 2091 andthe resting location of paddle assembly 2042 should be preferably chosenso that the amount of force required to form a closed circuit creates apotential that is greater than the average amount of potential createdby Johnson noise within resistor 2048.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that switch 2091 may beplaced on either side of paddle 2042 depending on what polarity of poweris desired. Similarly, two separate automatic switches may also beincluded in a piezoelectric paddle assembly of the present invention.Specifically, one automatic switch may be positioned in a certainlocation and at a certain distance beneath a paddle assembly while asecond switch may be positioned in a certain location and at a certaindistance above the same paddle assembly. In doing so, an alternatingcurrent may be produced by the paddle assembly. The produced alternatingcurrent would not suffer significantly from the effects of Johnson noiseof resistor 2048 because the output power of paddle assembly 2042 will,in most cases, be produced at a value greater than the Johnson noiseproduced by resistor 2048.

The current through resistor 2048 heats up resistor 2048, which iscoupled to one side of the thermoelectric generator formed by wires 2047and 2049 (which, as described above, are made from different materials).Wires 2047 and 2049 may be isolated from each other by isolating layer2094. The other side of the thermoelectric generator (which may also bereferred to as a thermocouple) is coupled to heat sinks 2060, which areat a lower temperature than resistor 2048. Persons skilled in the artwill appreciate that other devices may be used, such as thermal toelectric heat engines (such as, for example, a thermionic heat engine),rather than thermoelectric generators described herein, withoutdeparting from the spirit of the present invention.

The temperature differential causes the thermoelectric generator toproduce a DC voltage, which, as described in more detail below, may becombined with the voltages from other paddle assemblies to provide asystem output voltage. These voltages, in accordance with the presentinvention, may be coupled together in series to produce an electricaloutput at a useable level from system 2000. Persons skilled in the artwill appreciate that the resistive element, thermoelectric generators,and heat sinks of system 2000 may be removed and electrical currentrouted directly from the piezoelectric assemblies. Persons skilled inthe art will also appreciate that in addition to contact 2091 being ananotube, conductive layer 2045 may also be a nanotube or may beprovided on top of a nanotube. Doing so will decrease wear between layer2045 and contact 2091.

Persons skilled in the art will recognize that automatic switch 2091 isexposed to a large number of lower conductive layer 2045 contacts persecond. In practice, the number of contacts between switch 2091 andlower conductive layer 2045 could easily reach 1000 times per second.Appropriately, automatic switch 2091 is preferably constructed from aconductive material that exhibits low wear characteristics. For example,automatic switch 2091 may be constructed with a nanotube because ananotube, as a single molecule, exhibits good wear characteristics. Yet,any electrically conductive material may be used to fabricate switch2091. A nanotube may be placed on the bottom of lower conductive layer2045 to reduce wear between automatic switch 2091 and lower conductivelayer 2045.

FIG. 21 illustrates system 2100 which is a cross-sectional plan view ofthe nanometer scale electromechanical system of FIG. 20 taken along line20-20. System 2100 preferably operates in the same manner as system2000. Particularly, when paddle assembly 2142 is located about restinglocation 2199 and molecule 2110 (or a group of molecules 2110) strikespaddle assembly 2142 the resultant force 2111 absorbed by paddleassembly 2142 will cause paddle assembly 2142 to vibrate about restinglocation 2199. If force 2111 is large enough (e.g., if the verticalcomponent of force 2111 is large enough), paddle assembly 2142 will comeinto contact with contact 2191. At this instance, the potential producedacross paddle assembly 2042 as a result of the imposed stress onpiezoelectric layer 2146 will be carried through upper conductive layer2144 to one side of resistor 2148 and through lower conductive layer2145, switch 2191, and conductive layer 2192 to the other side ofresistor 2148.

The potential applied across resistor 2148 will result in resistor 2148heating up. The heat of this resistor is carried through wires 2147 and2149 to heat sink 2160. Heat from other paddle assemblies (e.g., anadjacent paddle assembly) may also be carried into heat sink 2160 viawire 2194.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the thermoelectricgenerating components of system 2100 are not needed to obtain anelectrical current or potential. Additionally, the individual resistorassemblies of system 2100 are not needed to obtain an electrical currentor potential. FIG. 22 illustrates system 2200 which is an array of analternative embodiment of nanometer scale electromechanical systems thatdoes not include individual resistor assemblies or thermoelectricgenerator components.

Paddle 2242 of system 2200 is constructed without a resistor assembly orthermoelectric generator components. As a result, a larger number ofpaddle assemblies 2242 may be placed in an array than paddle assembliesthat integrate a resistor assembly and thermoelectric generatorcomponents. Similar to paddle assembly 2142 system 2100 of FIG. 21,paddle assembly 2242 forms a piezoelectric generator such that whenpiezoelectric layer 2246 is displaced from its resting location, stressis placed on piezoelectric layer 2246 that creates a potential betweenupper conductive layer 2244 and lower conductive layer 2245. Switch 2291controls when this potential is allowed to pass onto the output ofsystem 2200 (shown in system 2300 of FIG. 23).

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the paddle assemblies ofsystem 2200 are in a different configuration than those of system 2100.Particularly, the automatic switch 2261 is utilized to open and closethe circuit between lower conductive layer 2295 of paddle assembly 2262and upper conductive layer 2244 of different paddle assembly 2242. Inthis manner, system 2100 places paddle assemblies 2242 and 2262 in aseries configuration with each other.

Persons skilled in the art will also notice that some of the paddles ofsystem 2200 share common upper conductive layers. Specifically, thepaddle assemblies of system 2200 are divided into rows such that eachrow consists of multiple paddle assemblies in a parallel connection witheach other. Specifically, paddles 2202, 2222, and 2242 are in a parallelconnection with one another and form a portion of one of the paddle rowsof system 2200. These paddle assemblies share common upper conductivelayer 2244 that is subsequently connected to the automatic switches of adifferent paddle assembly row of system 2200 (e.g., the paddle assemblyrow including automatic switches 2065, 2063, and 2061).

If a molecule impacts paddle assembly 2262, a closed circuit is formedbetween lower conductive layer 2295 of assembly 2262 and conductivelayer 2244 via switch 2261. In this example, conductive layer 2244 wouldapproximately have a potential equivalent to the potential of layer 2294added to (or, depending on the configuration of assembly 2262,subtracted from) the potential created by the piezoelectric layer ofpaddle assembly 2262. Now, if assembly 2202 is also closed thenconductive layer 2292 will be approximately equivalent to the voltagepotential created by assemblies 2202 and 2262 added to (or, dependingupon the configuration of the assemblies, subtracted from) the voltageat conductive layer 2294.

System 2200 may contain millions, if not billions, of paddle assemblies(e.g., piezoelectric generators) and thousands, if not millions, of rowsof paddle assemblies. FIG. 23 depicts circuit 2300 in which the arrayprinciples of system 2200 of FIG. 22 are illustrated. Particularly,circuit 2300 includes two rows (e.g., rows 2310 and 2320) of paddleassemblies. Row 2310 includes paddle assemblies 2312, 2302, 2322, and2342, while row 2320 includes paddle assemblies 2368, 2366, 2364 and2362. Each paddle assembly is controlled by an automatic switch similarto automatic switch 2261 of FIG. 22.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the configuration of thepaddle assemblies of circuit 2300 will preferably result in an additivefunction across the voltages generated between lines 2392, 2344, and2394. For example, in the instance captured in circuit 2300 onlyswitches 2392 and 2394 are closed. As a result, the potential acrosslines 2392 and 2394 is substantially equivalent to the total potentialgenerated by both paddle assemblies 2312 and 2364. As stated above, thepaddle assemblies in each individual row of system 2300 are placed in aparallel connection. Each row of system 2300 is placed in a seriesconnection.

Turning to FIG. 24, system 2400 is illustrated and is a cross-sectionalplan view of the nanometer scale electromechanical system of FIG. 22taken along line 22-22. System 2400 includes paddle assemblies 2410 and2420 configured between contact lines 2492 and 2494. Paddle assemblies2410 and 2420 are each included in separate paddle assembly rows (notshown).

Paddle assemblies 2410 and 2420 are shown with respect to their restinglocations 2401 and 2402, respectively. An intermediate contact layer2493 is also included between paddle assemblies 2410 and 2420. When bothpaddle assembly 2410 closes on automatic switch 2419 and paddle assembly2420 closes on automatic switch 2429, the potential between contact line2492 and contact line 2494 will be substantially equivalent to the totalof the potentials created by paddle assemblies 2410 and 2420. Byincluding more rows (placed in a series connection) into the array ofsystem 2400, the higher the potential will be between lines 2492 and2494.

A load resistor may be placed between lines 2492 and 2494 as shown insystem 2500 of FIG. 25. FIG. 25 illustrates system 2500 that includesload resistor 2590 between lines 2592 and 2594. Load resistor 2590 maybe thermally isolated from the working substance.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the principles of theautomatic switches discussed in connection with FIGS. 19-25 may beemployed in the other nanometer scale energy conversion systemsdiscussed above. For example, an automatic switch may be added to system1300 of FIG. 13 in order to reduce the effects of Johnson noise.Additionally, automatic switches of the present invention may befabricated without adding any additional components or structures.

For example, load resistor 1304 of FIG. 13 may be specially shaped tohave a specific critical magnetic field so that resistor 1304 operatesas a superconductor with zero internal resistance (e.g., no Johnsonnoise) when LOW currents pass through it. The critical magnetic field ofresistor 1304 could be shaped to have a specific critical magnetic fieldso that resistor 1304 operates as a normal resistive conductor when HIGHcurrents pass through it. Persons skilled in the art will appreciatethat only when HIGH currents pass through resistor 1304 will resistor1304 heat up and produce useable energy. In other words, resistor 1304may be fabricated using a superconducting material. System 1300 may thenbe placed in a thermally insulated chamber and cooled to a temperaturewhere resistor 1304 loses all electrical resistance (i.e., becomessuperconducting) when not conducting unusually HIGH currents.

In the above example, the shaping of resistor 1304 creates an automaticswitch in accordance with the principles of the present invention. Morespecifically, HIGH currents only occur in resistor 1304 when thenanotubes are hit by molecules moving at relatively HIGH velocitiesbecause HIGH currents produce a HIGH magnetic field in resistor 1304. Ifthis HIGH magnetic field is large enough, it will overcome theresistor's critical magnetic field and become a normal resistiveconductor. Yet, LOW currents occur when the nanotubes are hit bymolecules moving at relatively LOW velocities. LOW currents produce aLOW magnetic field in resistor 1304. If this LOW magnetic field is notlarge enough to overcome the resistor's critical magnetic field,resistor 1304 will remain in a superconducting state. As shown, theprinciples of shaping load resistor 1304 are similar to those associatedwith constructing automatic switch 2392 of FIG. 23.

Turning to FIG. 26, nanometer scale transistor 2600 is illustrated.Transistor 2600 is defined by base terminal 2622, collector terminal2641, and emitter terminal 2642. Generally, galvanic switch 2611electrically couples collector terminal 2641 with emitter terminal 2642when appropriate signals are applied to base terminal 2622 and collectorterminal 2641. More particularly, switch 2611 electrically couples toemitter terminal 2642 when signals from base voltage source 2621positions switch 2611 to position 2613. Switch 2611 may be, for example,a positively charged nanotube or nano-wire.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the designation ofterminals 2622, 2641, and 2642 as a base, collector, and emitterterminal, respectively, does not limit the functionality of theseterminals. For example, terminals 2622, 2641, and 2642 could be utilizedas, for example, gate, source, and drain terminals, respectively.

In preferred embodiments, base terminal 2622 is a negatively chargedlayer located about (e.g., beneath) and electrically isolated fromcontact 2642. Thus, by providing switch 2611 with a positive charge,switch 2611 will attract to base terminal 2622 as the density ofnegative charge on base terminal 2622 increases. The amount of charge onbase terminal 2622 may be controlled, for example, by base voltagesource 2621. Collector terminal 2641 may be coupled to voltage source2631 and separated from emitter terminal 2642 by load resistor 2632.Generally, it is the combination of voltages 2631 and 2621 thatdetermines the switching characteristics of switch 2611 with contact2642. Preferably, voltages 2631 and 2621 should have opposite polaritiesand the absolute value of V₂₆₃₁*V₂₆₂₁ should be of some minimum value.Base voltage 2621 may also be set such that nanotube 2611 touchesemitter contact 2642 when the relative velocity of the tip of nanotube2611 exceeds a particular amount (e.g., the velocity of point 1804 fromFIG. 18) if an external magnetic field is present (not shown in FIG.26).

Similar to assembly 1100 of FIG. 11, transistor assembly 2600 may beplaced in a magnetic field. When no static charge is placed on baseterminal 2622, switch 2611 moves between positions 2612 and 2613 due toits thermal vibrations and rarely (e.g., once per hour) touches emitterterminal 2642. If a static charge is placed on base terminal 2622 andswitch 2611 gains positive charge by voltage source 2631, switch 2611may connect to emitter terminal 2642 more frequently (e.g, once permillisecond). If a magnetic field is employed in nanometer scaletransistor 2600, switch 2611 can be forced to stay closed (e.g., coupledto emitter terminal 2642) while current flows through switch 2611.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that thermal noise may beadvantageously utilized through the many components of system 2600. Forexample, thermal noise about voltage source 2631, load resistor 2632, orthe resistance of nanometer scale mechanical switch 2611 may be utilizedto create the time-varying voltage at tip of mechanical switch 2611.More particularly, a DC voltage may be applied at charge member 2622such that mechanical switch 2611 electrically couples contact 2642 whenthe voltage at the tip (free-moving portion) of switch 2611 reaches someminimum value. Because the voltage of switch 2611 may in some systems,like a vacuum-based system, be configured to be dependent upon thermalnoise then this minimum value may relate to a minimum thermal noisevalue. Thus, in some embodiments, the voltage on charge member layer2622 may be both DC and controlled while voltage on switch 2611 that isinduced by thermal noise is both AC and uncontrolled.

Additional advantageous nanometer scale electromechanical assemblies aredescribed in commonly assigned copending U.S. patent application Ser.No. 10/453,783 to Pinkerton et al, entitled “NanoelectromechanicalTransistors and Switch Systems”, commonly assigned copending U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/453,199 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,095,645) toPinkerton et al., entitled “Nanoelectromechanical Memory Cells and DataStorage Devices”, and commonly assigned copending U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/453,326 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,199,498) toPinkerton et al., entitled “Electromechanical Assemblies UsingMolecular-Scale Electrically Conductive and Mechanically Flexible BeamsAnd Methods For Applications of Same”, which are all hereby incorporatedby reference in their entirely and filed concurrently herewith.

FIG. 27 illustrates nanometer scale transistor 2700 that is constructedto include nanotube 2711 as a switching mechanism. As illustrated,nanotube 2711 is in a closed position such that nanotube 2711electrically couples collector contact 2741 to emitter contact 2742.However, when nanotube 2711 is located at positions 2712 or 2713,nanotube 2711 is in an open position such that nanotube 2711 does notelectrically couple collector contact 2741 to emitter contact 2742.Generally, nanotube 2711 is attracted to emitter contact 2742 when thevoltage applied to collector contact 2741 and the voltage applied tocharge member 2722 are of opposite polarities. Persons skilled in theart will appreciate that nanotube 2711 may be any type of mechanicallyflexible and electrically conductive nanometer-scale beam.

Preferably, nanotube 2711 is in a closed position when the negativecharge at charge member 2722 is high enough to attract the positivelycharged nanotube 2711 (the positive charge of which is affected by thevoltage of collector contact 2741) towards charge member 2722 to anextent where nanotube 2711 electrically couples to emitter terminal2742. Isolation layer 2752 is provided such that the DC voltage oncharge member 2722 does not leak into emitter contact 2742.Additionally, one end of nanotube 2711 is attached to collector contact2741 by retaining member 2761.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the charge profiles of ananometer-scale beam and charge member constructed in accordance withthe principles of the present invention could have any type of polarity.For example, nanotube 2711 may have a negative charge and be manipulatedby a positive charge applied to charge member 2722.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that nanometer scaletransistor 2700 may be beneficially manipulated by an external magneticfield. Introducing a magnetic field upon transistor 2700 may cause, forexample, nanotube 2711 to remain in a closed position when current isflowing from collector contact 2741 to emitter contact 2742.Additionally, multiple instances of transistor 2700 may be employed andarrayed in a variety of different configurations (e.g., parallel andseries configurations).

Nanotube 2711 may also be oscillated in a vacuum by a heat source. Forexample, nanotube 2711 may oscillate on average of about 10 meters persecond at room temperature, even when transistor 2700 is operating in avacuum. To limit wear on transistor 2700, a second nanotube may beplaced on layer 2742 such that nanotube 2711 contacts this secondnanotube instead of layer 2742. Moreover, layer 2742 may be replacedwith a second nanotube since the collision between two nanotubes will,generally, result in little, if any, wear.

Sense circuitry 2792 may be coupled to contact layer 2742 to senseelectrical signals provided by nanotube 2711 as nanotube 2711electrically couples with contact layer 2742. Sense circuitry 2792 mayalso include the functionality of sensing the rate of contact betweennanotube 2711 and contact layer 2742 for a period of time by sensing thenumber of electrical impulses provided from nanotube 2711 to contactlayer 2742 per unit of time. Similarly, control circuitry 2791 may becoupled to either charge member layer 2722, contact layer 2741, or bothcharge member layer 2722 and contact layer 2741. Generally, controlcircuitry 2742 may provide electrical signals (e.g., voltage or currentsignals) to a particular conductive component of system 2700. Controlcircuitry 2742 may also control the magnitude, polarity, and frequencyof such control signals. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate thatcontrol circuitry 2791 and sense circuitry 2792 may be coupled to otherconductive components of system 2700. For example, control circuitry2791 may be coupled to contact layer 2742 while sense circuitry 2792 maybe coupled to contact layer 2741.

Base 2793 may be utilized as a support layer for the rest of thecomponents of system 2700 as well as other components not shown insystem 2700. For example, multiple transistor assemblies, like the oneshown in system 2700, may be fabricated on a single base 2793. Base 2793may be included as, for example, a layer of silicon. Persons skilled inthe art will appreciate that nanotube 211 is generally mounted to base2793 by way of a mounting assembly. This mounting assembly may take onvarious forms. As shown in system 2700, this mounting assembly mayinclude contact layer 2741, isolation layer 2752, and charge memberlayer 2722. However, system 2700 may also be configured, for example,such that only contact layer 2741 or isolation layer 2742 forms thismounting assembly. More particularly, the mounting assembly fixes aportion of nanotube 2711 to base 2793 while providing nanotube 2711 witha portion that is free to move. This free-moving portion may, forexample, move between positions 2712, 2713, and the position thatnanotube 2711 is illustrated as being in for system 2700. As per anotherexample, paddle 490 of FIG. 4 may be considered affixed to base 370 ofFIG. 4 where base 370 of FIG. 4 is the mounting assembly for paddle 490of FIG. 4.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that nanotube 2711 need notphysically contact conductive layer 2742 in order for an electricalsignal to pass from nanotube 2711 to conductive layer 2742. Generally,nanotube 2711 need only to electrically couple with conductive layer2732 in order for an electrical signal to pass from nanotube 2711 toconductive layer 2742. Forms of electrical coupling may include, forexample, capacitive and inductive coupling as well as any physicalelectrical connection between two components.

Multiple instances of transistor 2700 may be arrayed together similar tosystem 2300 of FIG. 23 such that useful functionality is realized.Nanometer scale electromechanical system 2800 of FIG. 28 is one sucharray configuration. In preferred embodiments, system 2800 is utilizedas a heat engine such that thermal energy from heat source 2840 isconverted into useful amounts of electrical energy across load resistor2860. In this manner, system 2300 is not removing the effects of Johnsonnoise. Rather, system 2300 converts unusually high spikes of Johnsonnoise into a useable energy source.

System 2800 includes any number of nanometer-scale electromechanicalswitches 2801-2806. Each one of nanometer-scale beams 2801-2806 ispreferably coupled to one resistor 2811-2816, respectively. Furthermore,electric charges 2821-2826 are applied around nanometer-scale beams2801-2806, respectively. Electric charges 2821-2826 are preferablygenerated from base voltage source 2850. The conversion of thermalenergy to a useful amount of electrical energy occurs as follows.Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that if nanometer-scale beams2801-2806 are included as nanotubes then resistors 2811-2816 may not berequired. This is because nanotubes exhibit resistive qualities and,therefore, may be the source of Johnson noise in system 2800. In thismanner, any component of system 2800 that has a resistive quality may bethe source of Johnson noise in system 2800.

One or more heat sources 2840 is applied to resistors 2811-2816,respectively. As a result, thermal noise (i.e., Johnson Noise) isproduced in the resistors. The thermal noise of resistors 2811-2816creates an electric charge on the end of the respective mechanicalswitch 2801-2806. Preferably, if electric charges 2821-2826 have anappropriate intensity and a polarity opposite that of the polarity ofthe charge of mechanical switches 2801-2806, mechanical switches2801-2806 will electrically couple (creating a galvanic connection) tocontacts 2831-2836, respectively. Current created from the electricalcouplings of switches 2801-2806 to contacts 2831-2836, respectively, arethen added together and placed through load resistor 2860.

Thus, the voltage across load resistor 2860 may be used as electricalenergy. Similarly, the heat produced by load resistor 2860 may be usedas thermal energy. Additional thermal sources and mechanical switchescould be added to system 2800 to increase the amount of voltage acrossload resistor 2860. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that, inpreferred embodiments, only resistors 2811-2816 that are generating anunusually high spike of Johnson noise will result in charges beingproduced at the end of nanometer-scale beams 2801-2806 large enough toclose nanometer-scale beams 2801-2806 into contacts 2831-2836.

Thus, it is beneficial to include at least two parallel sources ofthermal noise in system 2800. This may be done in many ways. As shown insystem 2800, multiple instances of a switch are placed together in bothparallel and series configurations where each switch has its own sourceof thermal noise. Other embodiments may easily be realized andconstructed in accordance with the principles of the present invention.For example, two or more switches may be constructed together in only aparallel configuration. Moreover, each switch of the present inventionmay be coupled to more than one source of thermal noise. Preferably,voltage from base voltage source 2850 is adjusted such that at least 10%of the mechanical switches of system 2800 are electrically coupled(again, creating a galvanic connection) to respective contacts at anygiven time.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the nanometer scaleelectrical assemblies (e.g., assembly 2890) of system 2800 may bereplaced by transistors 2700 or 2800 of FIGS. 27 and 28, respectively.Thus, mechanical switch 2801 of assembly 2890 may be employed as ananotube or, for example, be manipulated by a magnetic field. Switches2801-2806 may also be configured such that an electrical coupling tocontacts 2831-2836 only occurs for a thermal noise voltage of a specificpolarity and a minimum magnitude. Persons skilled in the art willappreciate that resistors 2811-2816 may be seen as converting energyfrom one form to another while nanometer-scale beams 2801-2806 regulatethe amount of energy that is provided across load resistor 2860. Personsskilled in the art will appreciate that nanometer-scale beams alsodifferentiate and regulate between high and low spikes of Johnson-noisevoltage (or any voltage supplied to nanometer-scale beams 2801-2806).

Looking at FIG. 29, nanometer scale electromechanical system 2900 isprovided. System 2900 is similar to system 2800 of FIG. 8. Particularly,components 29XX are the same as components 29XX.

Nanotubes 2971-2976 preferably are immersed in magnetic field 2970 suchthat the movement of nanotubes 2971-2976 due to heat source 2940 createsan electrical charge on nanometer-scale beams 2901-2906, respectively.Each end of nanotubes 2971-2976 may be electrically coupled to mountingpoints and slack may be provided between these mounting points such thatmotion can occur. In this manner, nanotubes 2971-2976 may be similar to,for example, system 1100 or the nanotubes of system 1100 of FIG. 11.Nanometer-scale beams 2901-2906 are preferably configured to onlyelectrically couple with contacts 2931-2936 when nanotubes 2971-2976,respectively, create an electrical charge at the free moving ends ofnanometer-scale beams 2901-2906 having a specific polarity and minimummagnitude. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that nanotubes2971-2976 may be seen as converting energy from one form to anotherwhile nanometer-scale beams 2901-2906 regulate the amount of energy thatis provided across load resistor 2960.

System 2900 can be utilized to convert the heat of a working substance,such as air, into useable electrical energy by using nanotubes 2971-2976to selectively slow down the molecules of the working substance.Molecules exhibiting high velocities that impact nanotubes 2971-2976will cause nanotubes 2971-2976 to move through field 2970 and generate avoltage on nanometer-scale beams 2901-2906, respectively. As a result,nanometer-scale beams 2901-2906 will be provided an electrical charge atthe tip of the free moving portion and, if large enough to attract tothe charge of layers 2921-2926, respectively, will close to make agalvanic connection with contacts 2931-2936. As illustrated in system2900, nanometer-scale beams 2902 and 2906 are closed upon contacts 2932and 2936, respectively. The voltages generated by nanotubes 2972 and2976 are combined and switched into main current through load resistor2960. In this manner, the kinetic energy of the working fluid isconverted to useable electrical energy. System 2900 can be used in avariety of applications such as, for example, propulsion applications.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that system 2800 of FIG. 28and system 2900 of FIG. 29 may be employed in a variety of usefulapplications. For example, system 2800 of FIG. 28 may be placed in theproximity of a microprocessor and utilized to convert any heat expelledby the microprocessor into a useful amount of electrical energy (e.g., atime-varying DC signal). In turn, this electrical energy may then be fedback into the microprocessor in order to reduce the microprocessor'spower consumption and reduce the magnitude of input power needed tooperate the microprocessor while simultaneously cooling themicroprocessor.

Persons skilled in the art will appreciate that two components do nothave to be connected or coupled together in order for these twocomponents to electrically interact with each other. Thus, personsskilled in the art will appreciate that two components are electricallycoupled together, at least for the sake of the present application, whenone component electrically affects the other component. Electricalcoupling may include, for example, physical connection or couplingbetween two components such that one component electrically affects theother, capacitive coupling, electromagnetic coupling, free charge flowbetween two conductors separated by a gap (e.g., vacuum tubes), andinductive coupling.

From the foregoing description, persons skilled in the art willrecognize that this invention provides nanometer scale electromechanicalassemblies and systems that may be used to convert one form of energy toanother. These assemblies and systems may be used to provide, forexample, heat engines, heat pumps or propulsion devices. In addition,persons skilled in the art will appreciate that the variousconfigurations described herein may be combined without departing fromthe present invention. For example, the nanotubes shown in FIG. 4 may bemounted directly to piezoelectric generators of FIG. 4, instead of theconfiguration shown. As per another example, system 2900 of FIG. 29 maybe utilized to propel the sphere of FIG. 17. It will also be recognizedthat the invention may take many forms other than those disclosed inthis specification. Accordingly, it is emphasized that the invention isnot limited to the disclosed methods, systems and apparatuses, but isintended to include variations to and modifications thereof which arewithin the spirit of the following claims.

1. An energy regulation and conversion system comprising: a source of DCvoltage; a plurality of resistor-transistor assemblies coupled in aparallel configuration, each of said assemblies comprising: a resistor;and a nanometer-scale transistor having base, collector, and emitterterminals, wherein said transistor is electrically connected in serieswith said resistor, said resistor is producing Johnson Noise at saidcollector terminal, said base terminal is coupled to said source of DCvoltage, and said DC voltage automatically turns said transistor ON whensaid Johnson noise exceeds a minimum level.
 2. The system of claim 1,wherein at least two of said plurality of assemblies are coupled inseries to a system output.
 3. An energy generation and regulation systemcomprising: a source of DC voltage; a plurality of generator-transistorassemblies coupled in a parallel configuration, each one of saidgenerator-transistor assemblies comprising: a transistor having acollector terminal, a base terminal coupled to said DC voltage, andemitter terminal; and a nanometer-scale electromotive force generatorcoupled in series with said transistor, wherein said generator producesan output voltage at said collector terminal and DC voltageautomatically turns said transistor ON when said output voltage exceedsa minimum level.
 4. The system of claim 3, wherein at least two of saidplurality of assemblies are coupled in series to a system output.
 5. Anenergy conversion and regulation system comprising: a base member; and aplurality of nanometer-scale assemblies coupled to said base member,wherein each of said nanometer-scale assemblies can convert one form ofenergy, a non-converted energy, into another form of energy, a convertedenergy, wherein each one of said nanometer-scale assemblies comprising:an output; a mounting assembly coupled to said base member; ananometer-scale beam fixed to said mounting assembly, said beam having afree-moving portion; and an electrically conductive automatic switchplaced within the proximity of said free-moving portion, wherein saidconverted energy is provided to said output when said free-movingportion electrically couples said automatic switch.
 6. The system ofclaim 5, wherein said nanometer-scale beam includes a layer ofpiezoelectric material located between a first electrically conductivelayer and a second electrically conductive layer.
 7. The system of claim6, wherein said second electrically conductive layer of said free-movingportion electrically couples said switch.
 8. The system of claim 7,wherein said automatic switch is a nanotube.
 9. A nanometer-scaletransistor comprising: a first input contact; a second input contact; abase member; a mounting assembly coupled to said base member; ananometer-scale beam fixed to said mounting assembly and having aportion that is free-to-move, wherein said nanometer-scale beam iscoupled to said first input contact and is provided a first charge; anda charge member layer placed in the proximity of said free-movingportion, wherein said charge member layer is coupled to said secondinput contact, said charge member layer is provided a second charge, andsaid first charge and said second charge interact to provide mechanicalstress in said free-moving portion.
 10. The nanometer-scale transistorof claim 9, wherein said nanometer-scale beam is a nanotube.
 11. Thenanometer-scale transistor of claim 9 further comprising: an externalmagnetic field.
 12. The nanometer-scale transistor of claim 9 furthercomprising: an output contact, wherein said mechanical stress causessaid free-moving portion to electrically couple with said outputcontact.
 13. A nanometer-scale transistor comprising: a first inputcontact; a second input contact; a base member; a mounting assemblycoupled to said base member; a nanometer-scale beam fixed to saidmounting assembly and having a portion that is free-to-move, whereinsaid nanometer-scale beam is coupled to said first input contact and isprovided a first charge; a charge member layer placed in the proximityof said free-moving portion, wherein said charge member layer is coupledto said second input contact, said charge member layer is provided asecond charge, said first charge and said second charge interact toprovide mechanical stress in said free-moving portion, and said firstand second charges have the same polarity; and an output contact,wherein said mechanical stress causes said free-moving portion toelectrically couple with said output contact.
 14. A nanometer-scaletransistor comprising: a first input contact; a second input contact; abase member; a mounting assembly coupled to said base member; ananometer-scale beam fixed to said mounting assembly and having aportion that is free-to-move, wherein said nanometer-scale beam iscoupled to said first input contact and is provided a first charge; acharge member layer placed in the proximity of said free-moving portion,wherein said charge member layer is coupled to said second inputcontact, said charge member layer is provided a second charge, saidfirst charge and said second charge interact to provide mechanicalstress in said free-moving portion, and said first and second chargeshave opposite polarities; and an output contact, wherein said mechanicalstress causes said free-moving portion to electrically couple with saidoutput contact.
 15. A nanometer-scale transistor comprising: a firstinput contact; a second input contact; a base member; a mountingassembly coupled to said base member; a nanometer-scale beam fixed tosaid mounting assembly and having a portion that is free-to-move,wherein said nanometer-scale beam is coupled to said first input contactand is provided a first charge; a charge member layer placed in theproximity of said free-moving portion, wherein said charge member layeris couple to said second input contact, said charge member layer isprovided a second charge, said first charge and said second chargeinteract to provide mechanical stress in said free-moving portion; anoutput contact, wherein said mechanical stress causes said free-movingportion to electrically couple with said output contact; and an externallight source wherein the amount of said mechanical stress isproportional to, at least in part, the magnitude of said second charge,said first charge, and said external light source.
 16. An energyconversion system that is immersed in a working substance having aplurality of molecules that converts energy from one form to another,said system comprising: a first thermally conductive member; a secondthermally conductive member; a first plurality of mounting points; asecond plurality of mounting points, each of said second plurality ofmounting points corresponding to one of said first plurality of mountingpoints; a plurality of nanometer members each of which is looselymounted between one of said first and second pluralities of mountingpoints such that slack exists in each of said nanometer members, whereinBrownian motion causes said nanometer members to move; a plurality ofresistive elements, each of which is thermally coupled to said firstconductive member and is mounted between one of said first and secondpluralities of mounting points such that there is a resistive elementcorresponding to each nanometer member; an external magnetic field that,when applied to said moving nanometer members, induces an electric fieldthat induces current to flow; and a plurality of thermoelectricgenerators comprising first and second thermally responsive members,each of said first thermally responsive members being coupled to saidfirst thermally conductive member, each of said second thermallyresponsive members being coupled to said second thermally conductivemember.